The windings of many medium and small sized transformers are protected by restricted earth fault (REF) systems. The illustration shows the principal of...

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Per unit fault calculations is a method whereby system impedances and quantities are normalised across different voltage levels to a common base.  By removing...

Dielectrics (insulating materials for example) when subjected to a varying electric field, will have some energy loss.   The varying electric field causes...

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Capacitors have numerous applications in electrical and electronic applications.  This note examines the use of capacitors to store electrical energy....

This is the second post in a series of two on periodic electrical inspections. In the first post, I discussed how often inspections should be carried out...

Various arguments exist around SF6 Gas Insulated (GIS) and Air Insulated (AIS) medium voltage switchgear. Recently we had to change a GIS design to AI...

This article gives an introduction to IEEE 485 method for the selection and calculation of battery capacity.

How often installations are inspected is up to the owner of the installation, provided such durations do not exceed any regulatory maximums in force. ...